theblacklollipop

Tourism is an activity that cannot be released by the population anywhere in the world. Not infrequently a source of tourism income countries, and also a source of employment for developing countries. Along with the development of global tourism's activities to bring the longer impact of the natural environment, socio-cultural and also economic. In response to this, the existence of the Sustainable Tourism Development (STD) is one of the important factors in the world of tourism.

Sustainable Tourism Development (STD) is an effort elaborative that applied to the object of a tourism management to use that is sustainable to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations. With STD expected later this tourism can develop rapidly and the economy can still take place without damage to natural resources which the future of tourism itself. Especially the physical environment (both natural and cultural, not a consumer and can also updated) and economic structure of the local community (because of tourism is to empower the local community, created employment and the unemployment). Sustainability of the STD itself consists of 4 principles, viewed in terms of the economy (in the short and long term), ecology (tolerant to the environment), cultural (cultural diversity to empower local) and local (to empower the local community).

According to the WTO (World Tourism Organization), the indicator that can be used to measure the level of sustainability of a tourism destination is the welfare (well being) the host community, protect the cultural assets, community participation, tourist satisfaction, health insurance and safety, economic benefit, protection of natural assets, natural resource management is scarce, limiting the impact, and planning and development control.
Development of sustainable tourism emphasizes the four important aspects that include economic, environmental, cultural and social. Sustainable tourism should be based on criteria of sustainability, meaning that the development of tourism must be economically feasible, ecologically can be supported, just a matter of ethics and society. This means that sustainable development is integrated and organized efforts to develop the quality of life with how to set up the provision, development, utilization, and maintenance resources sustainable.

Through this blog I will try to be able to compare the implementation of the sustainable development of India and France. Because the two countries is a country that has tourism’s income is very high. In addition, both countries also have a distinctive crest that culture of each of-thought-of position. But, behind all of this that both countries have, of course have differences in the governance of STD are due to ideology, geographical, demographic, and cultural, quality people, and more. Is the strategy we will discuss what is done by the French and India in order to promote their tourisms?

• PRANCIS
France is a country that ranks first tourism destination with most visitors in the world, because it has a charm in the field of culture and the environment. Given the large number of visitors who come to France, the impact of that, arise from tourism activities to this natural environments, socio-cultural and economic course is also very large. From there then France will need to apply sustainable tourism in the country to overcome the impacts arising from tourism activities in order to tour the country can still take place without damage to natural resources which is the future of tourism itself both in terms of economic, ecological, cultural and local.

See the situation, France was selected to be one of the initiator from 7 countries in the field The Marrakech Process on Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the UN Department for Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in the year 2002. Where members had the task of encouraging the implementation of SCP action that promote sustainable tourism through the development tools support, pilot projects and practices in other countries. Where is the focus of SCP is the problem of climate change, biodiversity, cultural and natural heritage, and regional development.

In general, France is committed to the start of sustainable development (sustainable development) that since 2000, when countries agree to this principle of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG's) which is the result of the United Nations' General Assembly in September year. In the framework set things in Objective 7 be the one to emphasize the importance of environmental sustainability, with a target to integrate the principles of sustainable development in policies and programs developing countries, and to restore the environmental resources that have been damaged previously. Which is the main goal is to make all activities of production and consumption in the service of tourists become more sustainable. Thorough, French Ministry of Ecology and recruit Sustainable Development, the Ministry of Tourism, and Ministry of Foreign Affairs to take care of this problem. In the implementation, development programs focus on four main areas, namely in the fields of ecology, culture, economy and empowerment of local communities.

In the field of ecology, the government is working to create a French trend of environment-friendly transportation and non-exploitation to resources that cannot be renewed. France want to ensure that planning, development and operation of the facility in accordance with the principles of sustainable development. France calls for the development of new Mobility and Ecological walks. France is also maintaining natural tourism, such as beaches, the mountains (normally used for skiing in winter), rural tourism (rural tourism), and its natural attractions. Beaches in France is unique, unique and always awake its cleanness. In the field of culture, France is renowned as the country that loves very own cultural. This is one of them reflected from the use of language in there. For that, France has bureaus that are willing to teach french language materials for the tourists. In the course, foreign tourists will be joined in a small group and will get the material on french language, culture and diversity of communities. France also always maintained the sustainability of its cultures, such as the use of words on each festival fetes the implementation, and maintenance of buildings of which the museum is the cultural heritage of the country.

Then, in Economics, in a micro perspective, rural tourism involving farmers or rural communities to maximize the assets and make additional income. Thus, the concept is not working to change the field of tourism, but to get additional income from activities that are done daily. The addition of this income derived from the sale of agricultural products to tourists, providing food and drink, lodging, and other attractions that can be developed, such as, horseback riding, souvenir, to hunt with the traditional rural sport. And the last is in the field of empowerment of local communities. In developing and supporting the sector of tourism, France continues to empower the local community. Centers in the sale of souvenirs there, the local people become a seller of gift-souvenir, or become workers in the sector.

• INDIA
Diversity of culture and tradition in India attracts many tourists from all over the world to come to it. India is divided into some parts of the region, namely North India, South India, East India, and West India. Cultural diversity, community, language, tradition were a distinctive charm of India. In this case the potentially large and prominent in India’s tourisms are the North and South India.
Tourism is a sector that consistently showed growth at the global level from time to time. India is one of the countries that achieved success in the efforts to increase tourism to the increasing number of tourists coming to India since 2002. Make a reality for tourism strategies in India has developed the facilities that support increased foreign and domestic tourists. India combined Sustainable Development concept with the concept of MICE (Meeting, Incentive, Collaboration, Exhibition). With focus development in the three sectors, the medical field, cultural, and spiritual.
In the medical field, were developed in the field of view because India is a potential can be developed in countries with their low cost and high quality medical facilities can be interesting destination for health tourists. This can combine with a holiday with health care. Patients from abroad can get medical treatment with the cheaper cost of their treatment when they get in their own country. India offers a number of hospitals in accordance with international standards and a number of fitness center, and spa that offers new experiences to the foreign tourists who seek healing. In the field of culture, many people still hold the tradition. Women are still many who use the essence as their clothes. Custom-thought so very high there. Then in the film that produced films such as Bollywood the artists also show that many aspects of culture such as the use of extract, dance-dance spectacular that India is often done in a colossal. Associated with the Indian culture, spiritual aspects of cultural tourism also decorate. This is because all tourist destination culture is very closely related to religion in India. For example, a tourist destination to Gangga River that habit and tradition is the Indian rivers are sacred. With the Gangga River, tourists can see the beauty in addition can also learn and trust with the local people who are a ritual in the river is.

Of the two variables above we can see that France is developing and promoting their rural tourism exist as sustainable development. While India, further maximizing the potential of natural and cultural diversity. STD in the realizing of course does not escape from the obstacles that hamper. For example, in France, awareness of rural communities will be less potential for village and they still need assistance and supervision from the government in maximizing the potential that exists. While in India, the obstacles faced by business is not a local maximum of the Government to remove poverty in the vicinity of tourist destinations and between Government, private sector and communities, not together to realize the ideal tourism. Expected in the way each country in the world to develop sustainable tourism in order to remain sustainable and long endure.

1. Chinese Government is now claimed as a socialist-capitalist government (socialism a la China), explain! And describe how the future of the system of government!

China is a communist socialist state that implemented a capitalist economic system in the country. One special feature of economic policy is to place the government as the main actor and regulator of economic activity. The government acts as regulator and the banking authorities, capital markets and money, the owner of the basic industries, and major activities other economies. As a communist country, China has desperately against capitalism. At the beginning of the Republic, around the year 1951, held that the movement actually directed to exterminate the capitalists. "Cultural Revolution" led by Mao Zedong was the peak. But Deng Xiaoping changed everything in 1978. The Keywords of Chinese changes is gaige kaifang which is opening up policy as he proceeds to reform the economic infrastructure. Deng Xiaoping eventually chose the capitalist road to China's economic reform. Since then also, China turned into a modern capitalist state. Party Secretary in the village level is no longer working on the collective fields but was good with his own company to seek maximum profits. At the central level, the Chinese Communist Party in the Budget bottom line, no longer just a representative of the proletariat (as taught by Lenin) but also representatives of "the power of the industry's most advanced" of private business groups. In this case, the state remains in control economy to ensure that economic liberalization and the role of global or domestic private sector does not destroy the existing order. Chinese capitalism is marked by the increasing importance of private industry's role in stimulating economic growth such as Haier. But the company's state-owned enterprises still dominate and determine the direction of the national economy.

The future system of government china
With the economic posture of such brave, no wonder other countries especially the United States was concerned with the development of China. China's economic expansion abroad in the form of investment has penetrated the world Africa was no exception. Countries benefit from China's trading partners in shaping the economic symbiosis and interdependence. Such economic relations with the political consequences for a country like the United States because of the political economy of the world can change to China. In short, China could become a superpower. In addition, China now becomes a major force and still put the welfare of the people. Viewed from the aspects of china government today, this time towards China is more openness and modernization.


2. Explain the differences in the leadership role of China! How uniqueness of each leader?
Mao Zedong: the great leap forward policies aimed at for China's economic rise through the industrialization of large - scales and take advantage of cheap labor. Mao Zedong also applied the basics of Marxism-Leninism in his administration.
Deng Xiaoping: making china 2.0, economic reform, receiving foreign investment from, and open the china market. Deng also made several mechanisms of government becomes more evident and more institutionalized. Uniqueness Deng is economic policy and the welfare of the people of China towards bringing a better economy.
Jiang Ze Min: Zemin maintain and continue what Deng Xiaoping had done. In addition, zemin 3 drafts representation, where the problems arise in carrying into the politburo of the party, then in the process there, and only returned to the government or other higher institutions
Hu Jintao: China is more high-profile policy in the government policy Hu Jintao with a lot of giving aid to third world countries. Hu Jintao also making progress in the field of diplomacy. Into typical of Hu Jintao is thought that scientific or socialism has a characteristic.

3. Associated with democracy, what is your opinion on the effectiveness of the Chinese Communist government?

Implementation of democracy a la china in the government dominated by the CCP can be said to be effective, because every bureaucracy has a clear separation, a clear division of tasks, and quickly realized the policy for the public interest. Then a new policy of economic reformed, to bring about change people's views and orientation of the ideology. Democracy created by the capitalist ideology is not to be accepted fully absolute, but enough to learn the technology, applied skills, and economic management.

4. Explain the system of 'interlocking' in the Chinese government! What are the implications for the government?
Interlocking system is a system where there are CCP members who are part of every structure and bureaucracy of government agencies china. Membership system interconnected between the CCP and the government system.
Implications for governance is
· CCP will coordinate with members scattered in all parts of government and bureaucracy to achieve party objectives.
· Because of the parts of government and bureaucracy is dominated by the CCP, it can be said that the wheels of government are controlled by the CCP.
· Worst part is that if a conflict of interest or divisions within the party, this can affect the performance of government and vice versa.

Timor-Leste merupakan sebuah negara muda yang baru saja mengalami transisi yang penuh gejolak selama 24 tahun bergabung dengan Indonesia, dan pada akhirnya secara resmi mendeklarasikan kemerdekaan pada tahun 2002. Dalam prosesnya menuju ke sebuah negara yang merdeka, tentunya tidak terlepas dari keterlibatan pihak asing dan media dalam upaya menegakkan HAM dan membantu menjadi sebuah negara yang merdeka. Dalam hal ini pemerintah indonesia dinilai lamban dalam menyelesaikan permasalahan status Timor-Leste dan upaya penegakan HAM di sana. Dalam kurun waktu 1976-1999 telah terjadi banyak sekali aksi pelanggaran HAM di Timor-Timur. Salah satunya adalah insiden Dili yang terjadi pada tanggal 12 November 1991. pembantaian pemuda Timor-timur di pemakaman Santa Cruz oleh para serdadu Indonesia dapat dikatakan merupakan sebuah titik balik dalam perjuangan rakyat Timor untuk diakui secara internasional. Terlebih lagi, peristiwa tersebut terekam dan difilmkan oleh seorang jurnalis Asing dari Amerika Serikat, Max Stahl, yang pada akhirnya disiarkan melalui media internasional . Peristiwa ini ditayangkan oleh berbagai televisi di seluruh dunia dan menyingkap keadaan sebenarnya tentang penindasan yang keras oleh militer Indonesia. Berita ini segera menyebar dengan cepat dan berakibat pada meningkatnya aksi solidaritas secara dramatis. Banyak wartawan asing dan pekerja LSM ke Timor-Leste dan mengharapkan kedatangan misi Portugis dan tindakan dari dunia internasional untuk menghentikan adanya aksi pelanggaran HAM yang terjadi di Timor-Leste. Di seluruh dunia, khususnya di Australia dan Portugal, demonstrasi masa, yang digerakkan oleh gerakan solidaritas non-pemerintah dan orang-orang Timor yang berada di pengasingan, mengusahakan campur tangan internasional. Lewat foto-foto dengan kesan yang kuat dari markas UNAMET di Dili, dan pesan dari wartawan serta pihak-pihak lain di markas tersebut, informasi mereka mendominasi berita internasional dan terus menekan Indonesia dan meminta pemimpin dunia untuk melakukan campur tangan. Sekjen PBB, Kofi Annan, melakukan diplomasi pribadi yang sifatnya mendesak. Upaya pertamanya bertujuan meminta Indonesia untuk memenuhi kewajiban keamanan.

Sebagai suatu reaksi atas tekanan dunia internasional, organisasi internasional PBB mengirimkan wakilnya dalam misi yang dinamakan UNAMET. Peran PBB dalam menyelesaikan permasalahan yang ada di Timor-Leste sudah seharusnya dilihat dari sudut pandang netral dan menyerahkan segala keputusan kepada rakyat Timor-Leste, tetapi ternyata kenyataan dilapangan membuktikan bahwa ada tindakan kecurangan dan keberpihakan UNAMET terhadap kelompok Anti-Intergrasi. UNAMET sebagai perwakilan PBB secara khusus memfasilitasi proses referendum Timor Timur agar berjalan secara adil dan representatif, tapi ternyata diluar dugaan justru kinerja UNAMET sangat mengecewakan. Menurut Jubir UNIF Basilio Dias Araujo, dalam siaran pers UNIF pada 30 Agustus 1999 menyatakan ada konspirasi internasional yang menginginkankan Timor Timur lepas dari Indonesia. Mereka meminjam tangan PBB lewat UNAMET-nya, dan berusaha keras dengan cara apa saja untuk memenangkan kelompok Anti-Integrasi, termasuk dengan membiarkan berbagai kecurangan yang terjadi . Keberpihakan UNAMET juga ditandai dengan banyaknya staf lokal yang direkrut UNAMET yang merupakan pendukung Anti-Integrasi yaitu sebanyak 95%. Tidak hanya sampai di situ, selama proses pelaksanaan referendum juga terdapat banyak keberpihakan yang dilakukan oleh UNAMET secara terang-terangan. Hampir di setiap TPS terjadi pelanggaran, banyak orang asing yang dideportasi karena memprovokasi referendum, UNIF (Pro-Integrasi) juga melaporkan 89 laporan pelanggaran selama referendum, hingga puncaknya pada 30 Agustus 1999 di seluruh Timor Timur terjadi gelombang protes kelompok Pro-Integrasi yang kecewa. Mereka menyaksikan sendiri pelanggaran-pelanggaran yang dilakukan oleh UNAMET beserta staf lokal selama pencoblosan berlangsung .

Intervensi dari asing ini tidak hanya terbatas dari peran UNAMET, Media internasional pun tak luput dari kepentingan terselubung dalam penyampaian nformasinya mengenai Timor-Timur. Mereka memanipulasi dan melebih-lebihkan kenyataan agar terlihat keburukan penanganan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah Indonesia dan hal ini menbuat citra indonesia menjadi sangat buruk di mata dunia internasional. Ditambah lagi adanya penyadapan dan pengiriman intelijen asing tanpa sepengetahuan pemerintah Indonesia yang dilakukan oleh Amerika, Australia, Selandia Baru, dan sekutunya untuk memantau dan menyadap informasi mengenai Timor-Timur . Dapat dikatakan bahwa Australia memiliki motif terselubung yang kuat dibandingkan negara-negara lainnya. Dapat dibuktikan dengan surat PM Howard yang mendesak Presiden Habibie untuk segera menyelenggarakan referendum diikuti oleh serangkaian lobi intens. Kedua, Australia segera membuka kantor konsulat di Dili. Ketiga, kontribusi Australia yang cukup besar dalam UNAMET, hingga mencakup 60%. Kelima, alokasi 2.500 pasukan di Darwin yang sewaktu-waktu siap dimobilisasi masuk ke Timor Timur. Kelima, Australia sangat berambisi untuk memimpin Civpol UNAMET. Keenam, aktivitas intelijen Australia ASIS yang menyadap informasi komunikasi TNI dan mencuri dokumen rahasia Indonesia. Berbagai analisis muncul untuk mengetahui motif Australia yang sebenarnya. Kemungkinan pertama, Australia memanfaatkan Timor Timur sebagai daerah penyangga (buffer zone) untuk menangkal gangguan keamanan dari utara, dalam hal ini Indonesia. Bila ia menguasai Timor Timur, segala sepak terjang Indonesia akan terpantau. Kemungkinan kedua, Timor Timur akan dijadikan daerah pemasaran barang dan jasa Australia. Kemungkinan ketiga, Timor Timur memiliki cadangan minyak dan gas yang sangat besar di Celah Timor dan tentu saja hal ini menarik perhatian banyak pihak, tidak terkecuali Australia . Oleh karena itu, permasalahan dalam negeri Indonesia terkait dengan masalah separatisme di Timor-timur menjadi terinternasionalisasi karena adanya campur tangan pihak-pihak asing di dalamnya.

Selama tahun 1980an, terjadi dua perdebatan dalam hubungan internasional. Yang pertama adalah perdebatan antara neo-realis dan neo-liberalis. Kedua, antara rasionalis dan teori kritis. Setelah berakhirnya Perang Dingin, perdebatan tersebut beralih menjadi antara rasionalis dan konstruktivis, dan antara konstruktivis dan teori kritis. Dalam hal ini, konstruktivisme menekankan pada pentingnya hal-hal yang bersifat normatif seperti halnya struktur material dalam merumuskan keputusan-keputusan politik dan dalam hubungan antara agen dan struktur.

Perdebatan antara neo-realis dan neo-liberalis diwarnai dengan perbedaan keyakinan mengenai negara-negara yang lebih mementingkan relative gains dan absolute gains. Kaum neo-realis percaya bahwa kekuasaan adalah segalanya. Suatu negara akan secara tetap mengukur power yang dimilikinya untuk melawan negara lain. Kaum neo-realis tidak percaya dengan adanya kerjasama. Negara yang blebih mementingkan relative gains akan merasa khawatir apabila gains yang mereka dapatkan lebih kecil daripada yang lain. Jika neo-realis memandang negara sebagai defensive positionalist, neo-liberalis menganggap negara sebagai utility-maximizers.

Pemikiran konstruktivis muncul ketika Perang Dingin berakhir. Konstruktivisme berbeda dengan teori kritis. Jika teori kritis tidak menyutujui pendapat rasionalis bahwa manusia memiliki sifat egois dan masyarakat sebagai wilayah strategis , konstruktivis mencoba menjelaskan dan menginterpretasikan aspek-aspek dalam wolrd politics yang tidak sesuai dengan pemikiran neo-realis dan neo-liberalis. Ada empat faktor yang mendukung berkembangnya konstruktivisme. Pertama, termotivasi oleh usaha-usaha untuk menekankan lagi keunggulan konsep-konsep teori mereka dan menantang teori kritis untuk bergerak ke arah analisis substantif. Kedua, berakhirnya Perang Dingin melemahkan keinginan-keinginan kaum neo-realis dan neo-liberalis. Ketiga, pada awal 1990an lulusan-lulusan muda memunculkan dalil-dalil yang dipercaya oleh teori kritis. Keempat, pergerakan perspektif kostruktivis baru dibantu oleh antusiasme mainstreams para lulusan tersebut.

Konstruktivis dibagi lagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu modernis dan posmodernis. Berbeda dengan perspektif rasionalis, konstruktivis berpendapat bahwa struktur normatif dan ideasional sama pentingnya dengan struktur material. Struktur material menurut neo-realis adalah balance of military power, Marxis menekankan struktur material yang berupa ekonomi kapitalis, sementara itu konstruktivis berpendapat bahwa sistem dalam berbagi ide-ide, kepercayaan dan nilai adalah struktur material dan hal tersebut mempengaruhi aksi-aksi politik dan sosial. Konstruktivis juga menekankan pentingnya struktur normatif dan ideasional karena hal tersebut dapat membentuk identitas sosial para aktor politik. Struktur non-material juga penting dalam membentuk aktor-aktor tersebut karena identitas seorang aktor dapat menunjukkan kepentingan aktor tersebut. Konstruktivis juga menentang pendapat bahwa agen dan struktur memiliki hubungan mutual satu sama lain.

Ada tiga perbedaan yang dimiliki oleh rasionalis dan konstruktivis. Pertama, rasionalis berpendapat bahwa aktor bersifat atomistic egoist, sedangkan konstruktivis berpendapat bahwa aktor bersifat deeply social dimana mereka identitas mereka terbentuk oleh norma, nilai, dan ide yang terlembaga sesuai dengan lingkungan sosial mereka. Kedua, jika rasionalis berpendapat bahwa kepentingan bersifat exogenous, konstruktivis berpendapat bahwa kepentingan bersifat endogenous. Ketiga, rasionalis berpendapat bahwa masyarakat adalah strategic realm, sebuah tempat dimana aktor mengejar kepentingan mereka, sedangkan konstruktivis menganggap masyarakat sebagai constitutive realm, sebuah tempat yang menghasilkan aktor sebagai makhluk sosial yang berpengetahuan dan agen politik.

Pada 1990, konstruktivis terpecah menjadi tiga bagian yaitu konstruktivisme sistemik, unit-level, dan holistik. Konstruktivisme sistemik mengadopsi perspektif neo-realis yang disebut third-image yang berfokus pada kesatuan aktor-aktor negara. Konstruktivisme unit-level merupakan kebalikan dari konstruktivisme sistemik. Konstruktivisme unti-level berfokus pada domain internasional dan berkonsentrasi pada sosial domestik dan norma-norma hukum serta identitas dan kepentingan negara. Sementara itu, konstruktivisme holistik mencoba menjembatani dua perspektif sebelumnya.

Dalam artikel ini, Burchill mencoba menganalisa bagaimana kebangkitan pemikiran liberal dapat pasca Perang Dingin. Untuk menjelaskan hal tersebut, kita perlu mengetahui tentang bagaimana kaum liberal menyikapi adanya perang dan pentingnya demokrasi serta hak-hak asasi manusia untuk berlanjut ke dalam pemikiran kontemporer.

Teori liberal mulai berkembang pada awal 1990-an yang ditandai dengan kematian komunisme Uni Soviet. Fukuyama mengatakan bahwa pada awal 1990, runtuhnya Uni Soviet membuktikan bahwa demokrasi liberal tidak memiliki kompetitor ideologi yang cukup kuat. Argumen tersebut semakin diperkuat dengan adanya transisi demokrasi yang terjadi di Afrika, Asia Timur, dan Amerika Latin. Menurut Fukuyama, berakhirnya Perang Dingin merepresentasikan kemenangan ‘ideal state’ dan bentuk tertentu dari ekonomi politik yaitu liberal capitalism.

Fukuyama percaya bahwa bentuk pemerintahan barat dan ekonomi politik merupakan tujuan terakhir yang akan dicapai seluruh umat manusia untuk mencapai pemerintahan yang ideal. Pertama, ia mengklaim bahwa pembangunan ekonomi dan politik yang diistilahkan dalam demokrasi liberal-kapitalis berasumsi bahwa langkah negara barat untuk menuju modernisasi tak lagi menemui hambatan dari ideologi komunisme dan akan secepatnya memperoleh persetujuan global. Kedua, perbedaan nasional maupun kultural tidak menghalangi kemenangan demokrasi liberal dan kapitalisme. Ketiga, tesis Fuluyama memunculkan pertanyaan mengenai pemerintahan dan komunitas politik. Apa implikasi globalisasi terhadap nation-states dan sovereign powers?

Fukuyama meyakini bahwa kemajuan dalam sejarah manusia dapat diukur dari berkurangnya konflik global dan pengadopsian legitimasi yang berprinsip yang telah meningkat dalam tataran politik domestik. Hal tersebut mandasari pendekatan ‘inside-out’ pada hubungan internasional, dimana perilaku sebuah negara dapat dijelaskan dengan menguji pengaturan-pengaturan endogenous yang mereka miliki.
Pada 2005, terjadi sebuah hal yang tidak diduga sebelumnya yaitu melemahnya dominasi barat dan berkembangnya militansi Islam. Hal tersebut dianggap merupakan sebuah kontradiksi dari perspektif yang selama ini telah diutarakan oleh Fukuyama. Walaupun begitu, Fukuyama berusaha menghidupkan kembali pandangannya bahwa penyebaran pengaturan politik domestik yang legitimate akan secepatnya mengakhiri konflik internasional.

Bagi kaum liberal, perdamaian adalah hubungan antar negara yang normal. Hukum alam mengajarkan keharmonisan dan kerjasama antar sesama manusia. Sebaliknya, perang merupakan suatu hal yang tidak alami dan tidak rasional. Dalam menyikapi perdamaian, kaum liberal menilai bahwa perang dapat dihasilkan dari pemerintahan yang bersifat militeristik dan tidak demokratis. Oleh karena itu, pemerintahan yang militeristik dan tidak demokratis harus dihindari agar perdamaian dapat tercipta dan kerjasama antar negara dapat tercapai.

Dalam hal perdagangan dan ekonomi, perdagangan bebas merupakan salah satu jalan demi tercapainya kemakmuran nasional karena masing-masing ekonomi secara material akan lebih baik daripada mengejar nasionalisme dan self-sufficiency (autarky). Konsep perdagangan bebas juga akan memecah pembagian-pembagian antara negara-negara dan mempersatukan aktor-aktor individu dimanapun ke dalam satu komunitas. Perdagangan bebas akan memperluas cakupan dan tingkat pemahaman antar masyarakat-masyarakat di dunia dan mendorong terciptanya persahabatan dan kesepemahaman internasional.

Demokrasi dan perdagangan bebas dalam hal ini sangat erat kaitannya dengan diperkenalkannya internasionalisme liberal ke dalam teori internasional. Kaum liberal selalu percaya bahwa pengaturan-pengaturan politik domestik yang legitimate akan dapat menegakkan hukum dan state’s respect terhadap menjamin jalannya hak asasi manusia para warganegaranya. Konsep-konsep hak asasi manusia mulai tercetus pada tahun 1215 yaitu dengan lahirnya The Magna Charta, kemudian pada 1776 penyampaian hak asasi manusia juga tercetus pada American Declaration of Independence yang berbunyi ‘we take these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, and that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that amongst these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness’ dan France’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen 1789 ‘all men are born free and equal in their rights’.

Kelanjutan dari hak-hak tersebut mendapatkan tempat yang penting dalam pemikiran liberal mengenai kebijakan luar negeri dan hubungan internasional atas dua alasan. Pertama, hak-hak tersebut memberi landasan yang resmi terhadap emansipasi, keadilan, dan kebebasan manusia. Kedua, negara-negara yang memelihara warganegaranya secara etis dan mengizinkan mereka untuk turut andil dalam jalannya proses politik akan kurang bertindak secara agresif dalam pergaulan internasional.

Kesimpulan

Kaum liberal percaya bahwa masyarakat yang demokratis, dalam hal ini berlakunya hubungan antara kebebasan sipil dan pasar, dapat turut andil dalam mencapai tatanan global yang lebih damai. Hal positif yang didapat dari berkembangnya demokrasi liberal adalah turut berkembangnya perdamaian dunia yang mendorong terjadinya pembangunan. Selain itu, indikator keberhasilan teori liberal yang lain adalah lebih banyaknya negara yang menganut civilian rule dibanding dengan militeristik. Hal tersebut tentu sangat mendukung terciptanya perdamaian dalam tingkat nasional, karena dengan berkurangnya pemerintahan yang bersifat militeristik dan otoriter, kebebasan masing-masing individu akan lebih dihargai, begitu pula dengan hak-hak asasi manusia yang sebelumnya terkekang dengan adanya pemerintahan yang bersifat terlalu menekan rakyat. Menurut kaum liberal, perang merupakan hal yang tidak rasional karena sifat alamiah manusia adalah hidup berdampingan dengan damai. Perang hanya banyak mengeluarkan kerugian, sementara keuntungan yang didapat sangatlah sedikit atau bahkan tidak ada. Dalam hal ekonomi, kaum liberal ingin menghapus pengaruh negara dalam hubungan perdagangan antara pelaku bisnis dan individu.

In broad outline some experts chart the democracy into several sections which include divided into procedural democracy, aggregative, deliberative and participatory. Procedural democracy can be interpreted as a democracy that is only in the context of the order without mentioning the function of democracy is to ensure citizen participation in the protection of his interests. Being a big question is when the constitution of China always mentions the protection of basic rights for citizens, including freedom of speech and freedom of association but in practice it is very limited and even then marginalized by the system of government which they say it is aimed for the political stabilization and economic. In general, the Chinese government itself was not agree with western liberalism, democracy, so the Chinese government chose to implement a democratic system where all decisions centralized in the hands of central government, thus forming a limited democratic system where people do not fully get the freedoms in the political aspects, social , and the economy. Various regulations, constitution, and the dominance of the CCP is a government tool in monitoring and controlling the implementation of democracy in China is evidence that democracy in China as a whole does not run the government is still authoritarian policies and has full legal authority to regulate public life, set the direction of Chinese democracy.

A major question to be answered is the extent to which the capitalists play a role in encouraging democracy in China and through what channels it can develop democracy in capitalism. Furthermore, according to Robinson, the capitalists will change the authoritarianism of the 'contradictions system' that took place between irrationality-authoritarianism of the government officials who are corrupt, authoritarian and irrational, will be faced with the capitalist class that has a principle of efficiency in a variety of actions or more hold on rationality-capitalism.

In the end if the two conflicting principles collide, then the government would be forced to adjust to become more rational, so this is what led to the assumption that the capitalist class can become a catalyst for democracy in a country. The logic is simple: economic activity is determined by the capital breeding, breeding is determined by the growth of capital investment, and investment occurs only if the capitalists to invest their capital. So the capitalists and also became a kind of "official" in the community. Because it considered the capitalist class has the power to influence government even further, up the assumption that the capitalist class can change the structure of the state of a country with economic power comes the change of the economic paradigm of development is encouraged by the government (led government) into the construction of market-driven (market led) led to a shift of power from states to international companies, and from the political system to economic system.

But the fact is different with what is happening in China, considered the capitalist class has not been able to build and promote democracy in China When examined more deeply, the cause of this is that, because the Chinese capitalist class is comprised of business owners, it did not consist of particular capitalist class, meaning that they do not have a common identity and interests. Some Chinese capitalist class from landlords in the past partly derived from the former government bureaucrats, and so forth. In essence, they do not have a common identity. Divergence of interests and identities is what caused the struggle to voice their opinions just so fragmented ineffective.

Assumption that the capitalist class and capitalism can foster growth and encourage rapid economic growth should be removed because basically capitalist class itself can be comfortable and thrive in a political order in China today, they can adapt to political and economic structure in China. So that it can be concluded that the power of the capitalist class does not become a catalyst for democracy. It is precisely the capitalist class which has been comfortable with the condition and structure of China as this is what hopes to maintain the existing political institutions today. This is in accordance with the idea that - prosperity paid political obedience-which until now had implemented in China.

We can conclude that the capitalist class in China has a comfortable and secure a place in the state structure in China so that the thing will be very difficult to be realized that the capitalism will come out of their comfort zone in order to build and uphold democracy in China. Logic which is built in the writing of the success rests in the capitalism survive and even thrive in the political structure of China and even structurally, politics in China became the basis for these capitalists in developed and will become impossible if the capitalists have become drivers for change constellation and structures built in the politics in China to return in its function in encouraging participatory democracy.

COMPARISON BY INDONESIA

According to Robinson, the capitalist class in Indonesia is not independent of the bourgeois government, but state officials themselves, military officers, families, relatives and their friends, as well as Sino traders close to them. Their birth as the capitalist class from their dominance of monopolies, contracts and concessions in development projects in the New Order. From there they then developed into a business empire ruler who now we know.

Armed with the power over the business when they later considered holding what is called 'structural power' of the business sector, state and society. This has the sense that, state welfare of the Indonesian population and the rise and decline of its economy increasingly defined by the capitalist. According to Robison, the problem is that their business expanded, the more they have a greater interest in the breeding of capitalism.

Let us move back to the time of Suharto's where democracy becomes a rare thing in the way of state, even at this time there is a restraint on the opinion and the ban on freedom of thought. A regime that is more inclined at an authoritarian system where political power in those days held and controlled by a figure who became president of the central course of the political system at that time.

This is more due to the foundation of thinking and orientation at that time wanted to emphasize on the development of political stability which is necessary at that time to support a successful development. Naturally the economic development and some areas have improved substantially, and indeed in fact it is running well at that time. We can not deny that the progress of economic development and the development of international political fundamental of the day went well. Indonesia stood to be a strong country economically and has a better bargaining position during this administration.

A political and economic development is very impressive. Yet, try we look more deeply, along with the development of economic development in the soeharto, was also in line with the occurrence of a moral degradation. Corruption, Collusion and Nepotism became a Mecca, and the new guidelines in conducting the Indonesian political system. Regime which should be based on democratic principles to try to build Indonesia into a system of monarchy where the king (president) and members of the royal family (the president's family members) have power over the people and the iron law also continues to be a thing that can not be avoided. The view that the capitalist class is able to encourage passage of democracy must be returned apocryphal because the capitalist class is the fact that it diminished the function of upholding democracy and democracy itself.

Yoon Hwan Shin in Demystifying the Capitalist State (1989), what is there in Indonesia is not the capitalist class, but 'the capitalists in the formation'. And they are not as strong as imagined Robison, because fixed will depend on the government. Political economy in Indonesia remains determined by the factionalism within the state bureaucracy in which the capitalists were sheltering. Essentially capitalist classes in Indonesia are not independent and still rely on government protection umbrella. Democracy is not possible with authoritarianism at home, but capitalism can be very familiar with the dictatorship. By looking at the interaction patterns in business and government employees who have roots in Indonesia, the theory of the capitalist class bias that encourages democratization is still questionable.

In this case right when Robison pointed out those patterns of interaction origin of the capitalist Indonesia is collusive and nepotism relationship with the state and military apparatus. The function of government in the economy tend to change, from serving and protecting the interests of the people to change into protective function of external interests, or in this case the capitalist class itself, even further, it will lead to socio-political distortions and exacerbated by the erosion of the foundations of social integration caused partly by a widening social and economic disparities and the increasing external domination in determining public policy.

Rationalization of this paradigm shift is the development of democratization in developing countries, in the philosophy of democracy; public policy is made as crystallization aspirations of the people, through their representatives elected in the general election mechanism democratic. The elected representatives who make policy execution, but ironically, along with the strengthening of global strengthening mechanism, there was a shift of social formations. Through the institutions of international financial institutions and the strengthening of multinational corporation in developing countries including Indonesia, the role of marginalized countries and turning them into material legal basis of capitalism operating through policy-making and protector in its implementation. In essence, capitalism in Indonesia has not succeeded in developing a participatory democracy, but democracy is capable of forming and lethal function of procedural democracy itself in its function as a protector of the interests of citizens.

Selama perkembangan Tradisi Hubungan Internasional (THI), agama telah terpinggirkan oleh THI Mainstream sekuler yaitu positivisme dan THI marginal sekuler yaitu post-positivisme. Namun, dalam ranah tertentu, kebangkitan tradisi agama juga memberikan pencerahan dalam menyikapi konteks hubungan internasional, politik dunia, dan refleksi mendalam tentang perkembangan keilmuan HI.

Tradisi Hubungan Internasional Sekuler

Dalam pemahaman kaum barat sekuler Eropa, THI dilahirkan dalam dunia sekuler sejak awal berdirinya di Eropa untuk menyelesaikan berbagai macam problem duniawi. Dapat dikatakan bahwa substansi HI berisi perkembangan mekanisme zaman modern, yakni mekanisme state-system dan capitalism system. Modernitas hadir sebagai fondasi bagi segala aspek kehidupan dimana dalam bahasa latin istilah ini berarti “kekinian”, sedangkan dalam kamus bahasa Inggris, istilah ini dikontraskan dengan istilah “kuno”. Kedua pengertian ini ditopang oleh kesadaran akan kekinian yang terbangun melalui proses rasionalitas manusia untuk melihat “kebaruan”. Dengan kata lain, pola piker rasionalitas merupakan kesadaran untuk membentuk keberadaan Negara dan kapitalisme.

Historisasi THI Barat Sekuler di zaman modern berlanjut dengan munculnya perdebatan teoritis THI yang dinamai “Debat Besar” yang mencakup Debat Besar Pertama, Kedua, Ketiga dimana Post-Positivisme menggugat positivisme dan variannya sebagai sumber dari pengetahuan. Dan akhirnya gugatan ini memunculkan berbagai alternative sumber pengetahuan di antaranya promosi tradisi non-western termasuk tradisi agama yang direkonstruksi ulang. Dan kemunculan Debat Besar Keempat yang meruncing pada gugatan antara kubu rasionalis yang mengutamakan rasio dalam memahami konstelasi internasional, dengan kubu refleksionis yang digerakkan oleh kaum post-modernis, yang tidak menganggap rasio sebagai yang utama. Dengan demikian, perdebatan HI Barat sekuler mainstream dimeriahkan dengan tumbuh suburnya tradisi dar kebudayaan atau peradaban non-Barat dalam kajian HI, maka pluralisme dalam kajian HI pun melebar ke luar Debat Besar HI selama ini. Jadi Debar Besar Western Mainstream dilampaui dengan munculnya tradisi non-western yang secara bergerilya bersaing dengan kubu mainstream.

Tradisi Agama dalam Studi Hubungan Internasional

Pasca peristiwa 9/11: War Against Terrorism yang dilontarkan AS tampaknya membuka kembali sejarah tragis peperangan atas nama agama atau Tuhan yang sudah tersimpan lama khususnya lontaran teks oleh george W. Bush mengenai Perang Salib. Hal ini terjadi ketika agama menjadi pengaruh atau daya dorong dari gerakan politik atau kondisi perang yang biasa dinamai “political religion”. THI BArat pun tidak luput dari peran atau sumber dari nilai-nilai Kristen. Bersumber dari perenungan nilai-nilai Kristen tersebut, maka Immanuel Kant yang merupakan filsuf Kristen taat, dapat melahirkan kata kunci “perdamaian abadi” yang berfondasi pada “nilai liberalisme”. Proses lahirnya THI barat sekuler ternyata tidak hanya dari ‘ibu’ yakni modernitas, tetapi dimetaforkan juga lahir bersama ‘ bapak’ yakni agama Kristen. Selain Kant, Hegel yang merupakan filsuf modern beranggapan bahwa THI Barat Sekuler lahir dari proses penurunan wahyu Tuhan (Kristen) yang kemudian merasuk kedalam akal budi manusia. Ajaran filsuf semacam ini dikenal sebagai “humanisme”. Sedangkan dalam ajaran islam, aliran yang mirip dengan ajaran Hegel ini dikenal sebagai aliran Mu’tazilah. Hal ini menandakan bahwa dalam sejarah, peran agama sangat menentukan pula kehidupan umat manusia di dunia.
Pluralisme dalam HI membawa berbagai peluang dan akses tidak hanya bagi banyak ajaran, tradisi, filsafat, tetapi juga ada peran agama dalam dimensi yang lebih tegas yaitu “political religion”. Oleh karena itu, pentingnya pengakuan peran agama baik dalam cara memandang teori maupun fenomena world political religion terkait dengan anjuran Smith tentang para staf pengajar Hi yang tidak perlu menolak peran agama kedalam Studi HI sebagai wujud dari pluralisme.

Peran agama secara umum menentuan THI Barat sekuler dalam dimensi norma, etika politik, norma, moral, dan hukum internasional, sehingga Kristen, Yahudi, Islam, dan Hindu sebagai agama pun tidak terlepas dari dinamika teoretisasi THI. Selain peran agama Kristen yang sangat berpengaruh dalam THI English School/Rationalism, agama islam pun mempunyai peran yang signifikan dalam konstelasi politik dunia. Dalam agama islam, prinsip yang dipegang adalah keadilan dan kehendak Allah yang ebrsumber dari wahyu Allah dan system pemikiran. System pemikiran dan nilai ini sangat berpengaruh pada karya dan cara pandangan ilmuwan HI dalam menjelaskan dunia Internasional, khususnya politik dewasa ini. Dalam sejarah, pemikiran islam telah banyak memberikan kontribusi dalam politik, khususnya dalam ragam perspektif, silang budaya Barat-Islam, memunculkan konsep-konsep Islam yang cukup penting untuk dipelajari sebagai kajian HI diantaranya etika perang, keamanan, tauhid, ummah, jihad,keadilan, akhlak, dan syariah. Inilah saatnya tradisi pemikiran islam memberikan banyak kontribusi dalam politik dunia dan kajian HI.

Refleksi HI : Apa HI sebagai wadah agama atau sebagai Sebuah Pemikiran Sekuler?

THI Barat dan non-Barat merupakan teori yang dipenuhi oleh nilai, etika, dan norma agam-agama di dunia. THI Barat ( modern-postmodern) tidak lepas dari nilai, etika, dan norma Kristen yang secara spesifik sangat mempengaruhi teori idealisme, lineralisme, English School, dan lain-lain. Dapat disimpilkan bahwa THI Barat seolah-olah memutus hubungan dengan tradisi agama Kristen, tetapi keterputusan itu menjadi suatu kenaifan dan arogansi, karena etika, nilai, dan norma keagamaan tersebut selalu akan menjadi roh dalam THI modern dan suatu awal solusi bagi kegamangan THI Postmodern. Sedangkan THI non-barat yang berasal dari Asia dan Timur-tengah secara tegas mengakui bahwa teori mereka bersumber dari keyakinan atau agama yang mereka percayai sebagai mata analisis dalam memahami fenomena internasional. Oleh sebab itu, agama sebenarnya tidak hanya diperuntukkan untuk urusan sacral dan suci saja sebagaimana selama ini THI Barat yakini. Jadi, tradisi agama seperti Kristen dan Islamsangat signifikan dan perlu secara tegas ditampilkan dalam kajian HI sebagai alternative krisis legitimasi rasional, sekuler, dan modernitas yang menjadi prinsip THI Modern dan nihilisme postmodern.